- Click Configure Adsense
- Allowed Sites
- Only allow certain sites to show ads for my account
- Fill the empty box provided in Adsense Account with the Url that you want to display and provide income for your Website
- Click save changes
Wednesday, February 17, 2010
How to control Google Adsense
Benefits comment
Perhaps publishers who want to hunt for free backlink is very easy ways to get, when you want to comment on the paper, you should adjust the content of comments submitted to the topic by the speaker, so that search engines provide an assessment that you have professionals in all fields even though only understand the small part of the information.
Authors suggest that every comment is deployed in thousands of websites can provide information to visitors that the comment was accompanied by a link have links to websites which relationships commented, but there is no guarantee that the transmission link that has been done through comments cause traffic to your website, because the relationship with the content of comments Your website does not necessarily have the same keywords.
Tuesday, February 16, 2010
Protecting Google Adsense in order not to get banned
I will share some important tips on Adsense, a few mistakes to be avoided in order to protect your AdSense account from getting banned by Google Adsense. These tips were collected from the Terms and Conditions Google Adsense and information from the FAQ on the Google Adsense. You may already know some of these tips, but those who do not know or new in the Google Adsense advertising program I will explain it very simple.
1. Do not ever try to click your own Adsense ads or ask others to click.
You must already know this. This is a sure way to close your Google Adsense account. Do not ever tell a friend or colleague you to click your Adsense. Do not ever think to offer incentives to your visitors to click on your Adsense, using the automatic click (click automatic), or other devious means. While you may think that Google Adsense does not know, but Adsense is very smart to detect click fraud. Check the ads that appear on your page with the Google Preview tool if required.
2. Do not change the Adsense code.
There are quite a lot of customization provided by Google Adsense, among others change color, background or line to suit your needs. Do whatever you want to do outside the code, do not ever replace the code directly. Google will know if you do that. Adsense for search code has more limitations of color and placement, but you must abide by the rules.
3. Never click on Adsense ads in a new tab.
Adsense ads should open on the same page
4. One account is for a blog or website.
You do not need to create 5 accounts for 5 different websites. One account is sufficient. If you're afraid of your Google Adsense account getting banned, trust me they will close all accounts when they find out. You can track clicks by using channels with real-time statistics. They will automatically detect the new site and display relevant ads.
5. Place ads only on Content Pages.
Advertisers only pay for content-based advertising.
6. Make sure your language support - Adsense supports "Chinese (simplified), Japanese, Danish, Korean, Dutch, Norwegian, English, Polish, Finnish, Portuguese, French, Russian, German, Spain, Hungary, Sweden, Italy and Turkey". In addition, AdSense for search is available in Czech, Slovak, and Traditional Chinese, and Indonesia. If your web pages language is not supported, do not use the code on that page.
7. Do not make Adsense ads as alternate ads.
Some services like Chitika eMiniMalls allows you to place an alternative URL, if targeted ads can not be displayed.
how to parse the adsense code
If you want to put adsense on your website, perhaps to successfully install your adsense code necessary to parse the code so that the first adsense adsense code can be placed to your liking.
When you want to parse adsense code, please parse this url code to see http://www.blogcrowds.com/resources/parse_html.php hopefully this article may appear in adsense content
Install Adsense in the post
Install Adsense in the post
How to put adsense code in posts easy enough just to copy and paste the code like below and replace the code that we mark, more information can view examples of the Google Adsense script after you parse.
Input this if Adsense placed on the left:
<div style="float:left;padding-left:15px;"><script type="text/javascript"><!--
google_ad_client = "pub-xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx";
/* */
google_ad_slot = "3290140858";
google_ad_width = 300;
google_ad_height = 250;
//-->
</script>
<script type="text/javascript"
src="http://pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/show_ads.js">
</script></div>
Input this if Adsense is placed to the right:
<div style="float:right;padding-left:15px;"><script type="text/javascript"><!--
google_ad_client = "pub- xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx ";
/* */
google_ad_slot = "3290140858";
google_ad_width = 300;
google_ad_height = 250;
//-->
</script>
<script type="text/javascript"
src="http://pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/show_ads.js">
</script></div>
Monday, February 15, 2010
PLATO__ARISTOTLE__LONGINUS1
Jul. 5
داانه
PLATO
Q1_Why Plato banished poets of the republic? What is the name of his philosophy ? What is the mimetic theory of him? Explain
In his book X The Republic Plato has attached much existing poetry because he believed that it excited the emotions indiscriminately, inflaming our senses rather than speaking to our reason. He has complained that poets only dealt in reality than the charioteers and ships' captains they described. He says he may include the best poets who sing religious hymns, but poetry should not seduce us by her charms because poetry is harmful though charming. Finally , the poets and artists are lairs because they are three times removed from reality.
Plato's philosophical name is metaphysical idealism that based on the idea up in heaven where the Gods are exists in the idea or perfect version of everything .So, the ideal tree exists up there and the ideal chair and so on.
The theory of Plato is mimetic theory based on the idea that we come from Gods with ideas , so anything we do in life is only a copy of the original , ideal thing .
Q2_"all poetic imitation are ruinous to the understanding of the hearer" ? explain.
In his book X The Republic Plato's states that the poets and artists have no true knowledge , but they claim to, so they are lairs because they are three times removed from reality. So m he also attacked much existing poetry because he believed that it excited the emotions indiscriminately inflaming our senses rather than speaking to our reason.
Q3_According to Plato there are levels of the true knowledge of a bed, what are these?
According to Plato in his book X The Republic there are levels of the true knowledge of a bed. The guy who sleeps in one would have best , but not the perfect knowledge of it. Then the carpenter who would make one would have pretty good knowledge. Finally, the poets and artists have no true knowledge , but they claim to , so they are liars because they are three times removed from reality.
Aristotle
Q4_ According to Aristotle:
What are the kinds of poetry? _A
In his book The Poetic Aristotle has written the kinds of poetry, so according to him that all poetry imitates with each kind imitates differently . The three main kinds of poetry are the epic, the dramatic and dithyrambic or lyric poetry . Dramatic comes under the imitate men in action with two of them. This point explains the distinction between comedy and tragedy. One of them is Tragic that is serious , noble actions , graver and better than us . Another one is Comic that is trivial , ignoble actions and worse than us .
The causes of imitation?_B
In his book The Poetic Aristotle talks about the imitation of having two causes with both rooted in human nature .One of the causes is natural instinct to imitate the experience of learning things is highly enjoyable .Even the imitation of bad things that is the beasts , can give us pleasure simply by its exactness. Another cause is that man's natural instinct for tune and rhythm.
C _The difference between tragedy and epic?
In his book The Poetic Aristotle differentiates between tragedy and epic. Tragedy is shorter and dramatic, it is in duration of 24 hours and it is better than epic. Epic is different in kinds of verse and narrative form , its length and its constituents.
Three moods of imitations?_D
In his book The Poetic Aristotle describes three moods of imitations. One of them is medium which is a form in a language , color , form, voice , rhythm or harmony , singly or combined . singing , dancing and poetry have different mediums . The second one is the object which is a content in the imitates men in action. That can be better, worse or similar to real life comedy or tragedy . Finally , the manner that is a style of dramatic in narrative first person and third person.
The definition of Tragedy?_E
Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious , complete and of an certain magnitude ; in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament , the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play ;in the form of action , not of narratives; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions.
What does Aristotle mean by "purgation" or "catharsis"? _F
It seems likely that Aristotle is implicitly referring to the mean of qualities and behavior of physical , mental , ethical and social which is the basis of his discussion of humanity in other works , and suggesting that tragedy help to keep fear and pity in their due proportions by allowing for a kind of ritual purgation of these emotion .
G_" Tragedy is the imitation man of action " ,explain.
In his book The Poetic according to Aristotle plot is an object and it is the most important element since tragedy is a representation not of men but of action and life .There could be no tragedy without action , but there can be one without character.
What are the important characteristics for tragedy? _H
In his book The Poetic Aristotle discusses the characteristic of tragedy into six constituent parts of tragedy . first of all, plot is an object and it is the most important element since tragedy is a representation not of men , but of action and life . there could be no tragedy without action , but there can be one without character. That is what certain individual do . The episodes must lead into each other with cause and effect . The event also must be in one chain . so, plot is the soul of tragedy. Secondly, comes character is an object also . so, the character should be good , true to type and social standing like women should not be manly or slaves dominant, life like and consistent. Hero must have a Tragic Flaw. The third one is thought which is an object , it must contain a moral lesson and a theme . The fourth is diction which is a medium and contains of words and choice of diction. The fifth is spectacle which is a manner and contains setting , element of stage and effect . Finally ,is chorus which is a medium and contains songs necessary for perfect
tragedy .
I _The difference between historian and the poet ?
The historian writes about what has actually happened , it concerns itself with particular concrete facts. While poet deals what might happen. Hence , poetry is more philosophical and deserves more serious attention than history and it concerns itself with universal truths.
J _The four quantities parts of a tragedy ?
Aristotle discusses four quantities parts and they are prologue ,episode , exode , and choric song .The whole purpose of a tragedy is to experience catharsis. It is a cure for repressed emotion. Pity and fear are evoked in us . It brings us to tears.
K _The differences between Plato & Aristotle?
Aristotle differentiated the idea between Plato and himself. Aristotle believes that we do not simply react to what we are shown , as Plato rather assumes, but also to how we are shown it . Aristotle is not concerned with the metaphysics of mimesis , as Plato had been ; he is content to observe in a factual way that men are naturally imitative , that they enjoy imitating . Aristotle puts forward of the view , at least in respect of tragedy , that poetry, while exciting the emotions , somehow controls and channels them. Plato has attacked much existing poetry because he believed that it excited the emotions indiscriminately inflaming our senses rather than speaking to our reason . Aristotle insists that they are dealing in a different kinds of truth that is the universal truth , imaginatively speculating on the possibilities of human experience , but Plato has complained that poets only deal in reality than the charioteers and ships' captains they described .
Longinus
How does Longinus define Sublimity? What is required ? what are the 3 vices of sublimity? And what are the five sources of sublimity according to him ?
In his book On the Sublime Longinus defines sublimity that the sublime consists in a certain loftiness and excellence of language , strokes of sublimity scatters everything before it , like a thunderbolt and in a flash reveals the power of the speaker .
Longinus asks himself a question saying if there is any art which can teach sublimity and he answers also that poet is part of genius and art . Nature is the only art that begets genius which is fortune and the poet or the author comes from natural gift . It is not something that is learnt . The difference in art is that there are education , technique skill , poem work and study of art and linguistic expression .
Longinus discusses three vices or faults that militate against sublimity . First of all , is a bombast or swelling diction arises from the desire to outdo the sublime. Next , the puerility or frigidity and is used of unusual silly affectations of silly and weak statements or analogies and comparisons that miss the mark . Poet tend to forget themselves at times for the sake of such trivial effects . In an attempt to strike new ideas they fall into absurdities . Finally , the false sentiment and is an empty display of emotions which there are hollow , irrelevant , tedious , personal and misplaced emotions of pathos .
He states five sources of sublimity . The first one is grandeur of thought that is an ability to form grand conceptions. Next , a vigorous and spirited treatment of passions that is the stimulus of powerful and inspired emotions . After that , the proper formation of figures of speech and thought which dignified and artistic employment of figurative language . Fourthly , dignified expression that comes through the use of noble dictions, the use of imagery and the elaboration of style . Finally , the majesty and elevation of structure and this source results from dignity and elevation of structure .
" sublime part genius part art", explain?
In his book On the Sublime Longinus asks himself a question saying if there is any art which can teach sublimity and he answers also that poet is part of genius and art . Nature is the only art that begets genius which is fortune and the poet or the author comes from natural gift . It is not something that is learnt . The difference in art is that there are education , technique skill , poem work and study of art and linguistic expression .
" Amplification is the opposite of sublime " . explain
In his book On the Sublime Longinus reveals in here the opposite of sublime is amplification . Sublimity is the soul that associated with a single idea , consists in elevation and it is quality idea . The amplification is the body associated with the gathering of all the constituent parts and topics of a subject , emphasizing the argument. It consists of all details and it gives extension to subject . It is quantity and certain amount of redundancy . It adds substance and strength to the argument by dwelling on it. In short it is the accumulation of all the small points and incidental topics bearing on the subject matter.
THE ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE BY PLATO
THE ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE BY PLATO
The Allegory of the Cave is an allegory used by the Greek philosopher Plato in his work The Republic. It is related to Plato's metaphor of the sun (507b–509c) and the analogy of the divided line (509d–513e), which immediately precede it at the end of Book 6. The allegory of the cave is also commonly known as Myth of the Cave, Metaphor of the Cave or the Parable of the Cave.
It is an extended allegory, where humans are depicted as being imprisoned by their bodies and what they perceive by sight only. In the Allegory of the Cave, Plato plays with the notion of what would occur if people suddenly encountered the divine light of the sun, and perceived ‘true’ reality.
In the beginning of the Allegory of the Cave, Plato represents man’s condition as being ‘chained in a cave,’ with only a fire behind him. He perceives the world by watching the shadows on the wall. He sits in darkness with the false light of the fire and does not realize that this existence is wrong or lacking. It merely is his existence ó he knows no other nor offers any complaint.
Plato next imagines in the Allegory of the Cave what would occur if the chained man was suddenly released from his bondage and let out into the world. Plato describes how some people would immediately be frightened and want to return to the cave and the familiar dark existence. Others would look at the sun and finally see the world as it truly is.
They would know their previous existence was farce, a shadow of truth, and they would come to understand that their lives had been one of deception. A few would embrace the sun, and the true life and have a far better understanding of ‘truth.’ They would also want to return to the cave to free the others in bondage, and would be puzzled by people still in the cave who would not believe the now ‘enlightened’ truth bearer. Many would refuse to acknowledge any truth beyond their current existence in the cave.
Symbols And Their Interpretations
The man in the Allegory of the Cave refers to us. In the beginning, the world we know was that place inside the cave. The shadows that we see were the things that we believe to be true, we believed that that was the. The man, or we, were then, released and given a chance to go out of the ‘world’ we once knew. We were given the chance to be enlightened and to realize that what we believed in the past were somewhat all lies. The sun in the story was the truth, the real truth that once we don’t know. Some of us will receive the knowledge and embrace the truth. Those who believed would want to return in the cave to share about the truth.
The ‘enlightened ones’ will tell the others about the ‘world’ outside, which for us is the real world or the reality, but the people inside will reject the truth. They will still believe in what they used to believe, and would still prefer darkness. The ‘enlightened ones’, who are used to the light outside, will take time to be accustomed to the darkness inside the cave, and might stumble, which the people inside will think that the ‘truth’ that he believed ruined him. In other words, when we will try to share what we’ve experienced, there are times that we will be wrong and people who don’t believe will conclude that the ‘truth’, which the man acquired only made him wrong.
Other Explanations
The myth of the cave describes individuals chained deep within the recesses of a cave. Bound so that vision is restricted, they cannot see one another. The only thing visible is the wall of the cave upon which appear shadows cast by models or statues of animals and objects that are passed before a brightly burning fire. Breaking free, one of the individuals escapes from the cave into the light of day. With the aid of the sun, that person sees for the first time the real world and returns to the cave with the message that the only things they have seen are shadows and appearances and that the real world awaits them if they are willing to struggle free of their bonds. The shadowy environment of the cave symbolizes for Plato the physical world of appearances. Escape into the sun-filled setting outside the cave symbolizes the transition to the real world, the world of full and perfect being, the world of Forms, which is the proper object of knowledge. Plato established the Forms as arranged hierarchically; the supreme Form is the Form of the Good, which, like the sun in the myth of the cave. There is a sense in which the Form of the Good represents Plato's movement in the direction of an ultimate principle of explanation. Ultimately, the theory of Forms is intended to explain how one comes to know and also how things have come to be as they are. In philosophical language, Plato's theory of Forms is a theory of knowledge and a theory of being. The cave is the world; the fetters are the imagination; the shadows of ourselves are the passive states which we know by thinking. The learned in the cave are those who possess empirical forms of knowledge (who know how to make predictions, the doctors who know how to cure people by using empirical methods, those who know what is going on, etc.). Their knowledge is nothing but a shadow. Education, he says, is, according to the generally accepted view of it, nothing but the forcing of thoughts into the minds of children.
Lesson or Central Message of The Allegory of the Cave
Truth must be experienced rather than told because language fails to convey belief. Language is the barest shadow of reality. People who are firmly committed to a religious view often echo this statement. Faith can’t be given to other people, but must be experienced.
The Allegory of the Cave also represents an extended metaphor for the state of human existence, and for the transformation that occurs during philosophical enlightenment. When the light of the sun shines on the freed man, this is allegory for enlightenment and perception of the truth. The minor concerns of the world as he has viewed it previously are now seen as falsely held perception and he is eager to share enlightenment with others.
Also, for Plato, each person has within himself the ability to think. If one does not understand, this is because one is held by the chains. Whenever the soul is bound by the chains of suffering, pleasure, etc. it is unable to contemplate through its own intelligence the unchanging patterns of things. No doubt, there are mathematicians in the cave, but their attention is given to honors, rivalries, competition, etc. If anyone is not able to understand the unchanging patterns of things, that is not due to a lack of intelligence; it is due to a lack of moral stamina. In order to direct one's attention to the perfect patterns of things, one has to stop valuing things which are always changing and not eternal. One can look at the same world, which is before our eyes, either from the point of view of its relation to time, or from that of its relationship to eternity. Education means turning the soul in the direction in which it should look, of delivering the soul from the passions. Plato's morality is: Do not make the worst possible mistake of deceiving yourself. We know that we are acting correctly when the power of thinking is not hindered by what we are doing. To do only those things which one can think clearly, and not to do those things which force the mind to have unclear thoughts about what one is doing.
Relationship of the Allegory of the Cave to Plato’s Theory of Knowledge
Plato's theory of knowledge is found in the Republic, particularly in his discussion of the image about the myth of the cave. Plato distinguishes between two levels of awareness: opinion and knowledge. The myth of the cave describes individuals chained deep within the recesses of a cave. Escape into the sun-filled setting outside the cave symbolizes the transition to the real world, the world of full and perfect being, the world of Forms, which is the proper object of knowledge. Plato established the Forms as arranged hierarchically; the supreme Form is the Form of the Good, which, like the sun in the myth of the cave. There is a sense in which the Form of the Good represents Plato's movement in the direction of an ultimate principle of explanation. Ultimately, the theory of Forms is intended to explain how one comes to know and also how things have come to be as they are. In philosophical language, Plato's theory of Forms is a theory of knowledge and a theory of being. The cave is the world; the fetters are the imagination; the shadows of ourselves are the passive states which we know by thinking. The learned in the cave are those who possess empirical forms of knowledge (who know how to make predictions, the doctors who know how to cure people by using empirical methods, those who know what is going on, etc.). Their knowledge is nothing but a shadow. Education, he says, is, according to the generally accepted view of it, nothing but the forcing of thoughts into the minds of children. For, says Plato, each person has within himself the ability to think. If one does not understand, this is because one is held by the chains. Education means turning the soul in the direction in which it should look, of delivering the soul from the passions. Plato's morality is: Do not make the worst possible mistake of deceiving yourself. We know that we are acting correctly when the power of thinking is not hindered by what we are doing. To do only those things which one can think clearly, and not to do those things which force the mind to have unclear thoughts about what one is doing. That is the whole of Plato's morality.
ديكارت فوكوّياً
ديكارت فوكوّياً » عندما أتأمل ذاتي ، فإني لا أعرف فقط أنني كائن ناقص متعلق بغيري يسعى دائماً الى ما هو أفضل ويطمح إليه،بل أعرف في الوقت نفسه أن الكائن الذي يتعلق وجودي به ، له جميع الكمالات التي اطمح اليها .. وهو ينعم بها بالفعل وبمقدار غير متناه فهو الله « . |
رونيه ديكارت
رونيه ديكارت (1596-1650)
فيلسوف وعالم رياضيات وفيزيائي ومثقف موسوعي فرنسي. يُعتبَر مؤسِّس الرياضيات الحديثة، إذ قام بتبسيط الكتابة الرياضية وأسَّس الهندسة الديكارتية التي تتم بها دراسةُ الأشكال الهندسية ضمن نظام إحداثيات يدمج بين الهندسة المستوية والجبر. وفي الفيزياء، استخرج قوانين انتثار الضوء واكتشف مفهوم العمل. وقد وضع بفيزيائه الميكانيكية ونظريته في الحيوانات–الآلات أسُس العلم الحديث. يُعتبَر كذلك من رواد العقلانية في الفلسفة الحديثة: فالكثير من الأفكار والفلسفات الغربية اللاحقة هي ثمرة التفاعل مع كتاباته التي دُرِّست وتدرَّس من أيامه حتى يومنا هذا. لذلك يُعد ديكارت أحد المفكرين الغربيين الأساسيين وأحد مفاتيح فهمنا للثورة العلمية والحضارة الحديثة[1].
أ. حياته ومؤلَّفاته الأساسية:
ولد رونيه ديكارت René Descartes (باللاتينية: Renato Cartesius) في 31 آذار 1596 في بلدة لاهاي من أعمال مقاطعة تورين بفرنسا لأسرة من صغار الأشراف الفرنسيين. كان أبوه مستشارًا ببرلمان مدينة رين، أما أمه فماتت بعد مولده بثلاثة عشر شهرًا. تلقى ديكارت علومه الأولى في مدرسة la Flèche الملكية، إحدى مدارس اليسوعيين، فبقي يتعلم بها ثماني سنوات، حيث أخذ عنها العلوم والفلسفة، فقضى السنوات الخمس الأولى في دراسة اللغات القديمة والثلاثة الأخيرة في دراسة المنطق والأخلاق والرياضيات والطبيعيات والميتافيزيقا. في العام 1629، قصد ديكارت هولندا ليتعلم صنعة الحرب على يد أشهر جندي في أوروبا، موريس دُه ناساو؛ وكان قد سبق ديكارت إلى "البلاد الواطئة" كثيرون من أشراف الفرنسيين، أرادوا مثله أن يخدموا تحت إمرة ذلك الجندي الذائع الصيت. توجَّه ديكارت بعد ذلك إلى هولندا، فلقي هناك طبيبًا مثقفًا ذا علم واسع بالرياضيات والطبيعيات اسمه اسحق بيكمَن، فصادقه.
وفي ليلة 10 تشرين الثاني 1619، في ألمانيا (حيث كان قد انخرط في قوات مكسيمليان الباڤاري)، انكشفت لديكارت، حدسًا، "أسُس علم بديع"، ذهب الفيلسوف اعتبارًا منه إلى أن مجموع العلوم يشكِّل وحدة مؤتلفة في الحكمة، أي في المعرفة التي نستقيها من أنفسنا.
في العام 1920، غادر ديكارت بلدة نويبرغ على نهر الدانوب، حيث تم له هذا "الاكتشاف"، وصرف السنوات التسع التالية متنقلاً في البلاد، متفرجًا على مسرح الدنيا. وفي العام 1628-1629، كتب رسالة صغيرة في الميتافيزيقا موضوعها وجود الله ووجود الروح، قصد بها تبسيط شيء من قواعد الطبيعيات السكولاستية. وهذا يدلنا على أن ديكارت كان يشتغل منذ العام 1629 على تحرير التأملات الميتافيزيقية الذي لم يرَ النور إلا في العام 1641.
الصفحة الأولى من كتاب الهندسة (1637).
نشر ديكارت في العام 1637 ثلاث رسائل علمية هي: البصريات والآثار العلوية والهندسة. وقد صدَّرها بمقدمة هي خطاب المنهج، حاول أن يبين فيه أنه استعمل منهجًا آخر غير المنهج الشائع، وأن هذا المنهج ليس أسوأ المناهج ولا أقبحها.
الصفحة الأولى من كتاب خطاب المنهج (1637).
ونشر ديكارت في العام 1641 كتاب تأملات ميتافيزيقية باللغة اللاتينية، وفيه يبرهن على وجود الله وخلود النفس. ولقد كانت آخر مؤلَّفات الفيلسوف رسالة في أهواء النفس (1649).
سافر إلى السويد (أسوج) بدعوة من الملكة كريستين ليلقِّنها بنفسه فلسفته، لكن الجو في ستوكهولم لم يلائم صحته؛ فضلاً عن أن الملكة حددت الساعة الخامسة صباحًا وقتًا للتباحث معه في الفلسفة، وكانت تلك الساعة المبكرة شاقة جدًّا على الفيلسوف. فأصيب بنزلة رئوية وتوفي صباح 11 شباط 1650.
2. منهجه العلمي وفلسفته: فلنبسط الآن الأسُس العامة لجديد الفكر الديكارتي الذي يتألف من فلسفة المعرفة والميتافيزيقا.
أولاً: فلسفة المعرفة (الإپستمولوجيا الديكارتية): يشبِّه ديكارت الفلسفة بشجرة، الميتافيزيقا جذورها والأخلاق ثمارها، بالإضافة إلى الميكانيكا والطب. وهذا يعني أن الميتافيزيقا ليست في أهمية المعرفة الأخلاقية، لأن مهمة الإنسان في هذه الحياة هي أن يكتشف مبادئ السلوك السليم التي تؤهله، مع سائر العلوم، ليكون سيد الطبيعة. الاهتمام بالمعرفة الميتافيزيقية، وبالفلسفة عامة، هو إذن وسيلة لبناء الحياة السعيدة. لكن هذا البناء السلوكي يشترط منهجًا في التفكير يقود إلى ضبط الحقائق. فما هو هذا المنهج؟
الصفحة الأولى من كتاب مبادئ الفلسفة (1644).
نظر بعض الفلاسفة إلى المسبقات a priori التي توارثوها على أنها "حقائق" لأنهم يعتبرون الآراء العامة السائدة بين الناس غير قابلة للنقاش، وبعضهم الآخر اعتبر أفلاطون وأرسطو مرجعَين لا يخطئان. فما هو المنهج الذي ينبغي لنا اتباعه لبلوغ الحقيقة؟ لا يملك الإنسان إلا وسيلتين للمعرفة اليقينية: الحدس والاستنتاج:
أ. الحدس: هو الذي يدرك، مباشرةً ويقينًا، بعض الأمور: كالقول مثلاً إن المثلث صورة، وإنه يتألف من ثلاث زوايا وثلاثة أضلاع. هذه المعلومات تشكل مبادئ بسيطة ومنطلقات موروثة.
ب. الاستنتاج: هو استخلاص نتائج ثابتة من بعض الطروحات، كمحاولة العثور، مثلاً، على حلٍّ للمسألة التالية: كيف يكون مجموع زوايا المثلث معادلاً لزاويتين قائمتين؟
بذا يعتقد ديكارت أن الحدس يدرك المبادئ الأولى والمباشرة في العلم والفلسفة، وأن الاستنتاج العقلي يضبط المحصلات المنطقية التي تنتج عن تركيب المبادئ السابقة الذكر. وبما أن الحدس والاستنتاج يعطيان نتائج تتحول إلى معتقدات مبهمة إذا لم تقترن بالتجربة، يجعل ديكارت التجربة شرطًا ثالثًا للحصول على اليقين في المعرفة. وهو يلاحظ في كتابه خطاب المنهج أن بعض القواعد الأخرى ضرورية لحسن استعمال المبادئ الثلاثة الآنفة الذكر:
1. القاعدة الأولى: ينبغي لنا السلوك في حذر، بتفادي التسرع والتهور، وعدمُ الركون إلى أمر ما بوصفه حقيقةً إلا إذا بدا لنا يقينًا أنه كذلك استنادًا إلى الموضوع في أفكارنا وإلى قدرتنا على التمييز بين الصحة والخطأ. ولا يتم هذا العمل إلا بممارسة الشك المنهجي. ويعني هذا النوع من الشك أن ننزع من تفكيرنا كلَّ ما لا يضبطه اليقين ضبطًا كاملاً، كلَّ ما يحتمل قدْرًا، وإنْ قليل، من الشك. هذه العمليات تهبنا إدراكًا واعيًا شديد الوضوح للمفاهيم والأفكار الثابتة غير المشكوك فيها، فنتصرف كالرجل الذي يود التفريق بين التفاحات العفنة والتفاحات السليمة التي يحملها في سلَّته: يفرغ هذه السلَّة، يفحص تفاحاته واحدة تلو الأخرى، ثم يضع التفاحات العفنة في جانب ويعيد ملء السلَّة بالتفاحات السليمة. هكذا ينبغي أن نجري عملية الفحص عن محتويات أفكارنا، فنهمل ما هو مشكوك فيه ولا نتخذ إلا المفاهيم والأفكار التي نتيقن منها.
2. القاعدة الثانية: تقضي بإجراء تحليل دقيق للمسائل، وصولاً إلى الأفكار البسيطة، فالأبسط منها.
3. القاعدة الثالثة: هي التركيب أو المؤالفة بين الأفكار البسيطة التي كشفها التحليل انطلاقًا نحو المفاهيم المركبة الأعقد في تدرُّج منطقي ينتج فيه المركب عن البسيط.
4. القاعدة الرابعة: هي القدرة على إعادة النظر في كلِّ ما سبق وحصلنا عليه عبر الحدس والاستنتاج، كما وعبر القواعد الثلاث الأولى. وهناك لا يكون للتجربة دورُ إثبات صحة ما وصلنا إليه وحسب، بل والتوصل إلى تتويج هذه الحصيلة بكشفٍ لأسرار عالمنا في الحقول كلِّها[2].